the freedom

1 Left  ^era:          the freedom

Freedom means  the possibility of acting according to its own will, without constraint. First term of the French republican currency, it is  a fundamental principle of the democracy.

However, even in the democracies, freedom has  limits.

1.   "IT There A NOT OF FREEDOM WITHOUT LAWS"

Freedom "consists in  being able to do all that does not harm others " says article 4 of the Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen of 1789. The freedom of an individual thus has limits: the freedom of the others.

But these limits should not be posed anyhow: the Declaration says that they can "be fixed only by the law ". The democratic laws, without which anarchy règnerait, are necessary to guarantee freedom.

It is exactly what expresses, twenty-five years before the French revolution, the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau: "There is freedom without laws, nor where somebody is above the laws" (written Letters of the mountain,  1764).

2.   FREEDOM EAST A RIGHT TO THE MULTIPLE FORMS

Freedom actually covers with multiple aspects. This is why one speaks more readily about "freedoms " in the plural. These freedoms rise from the basic rights recognized to the man: they are the application of  the humans right, such as they were devoted to  the xviii ^E century.

Among freedoms, one distinguishes the personal freedoms from collective freedoms.

The personal freedoms  are rights which each individual can  only exert: the freedom of going and coming, freedom of thought, religious freedom, freedom to have a private life (the residence is inviolable, the secrecy of the correspondence is protected, etc), the safety (which consists in being protected from an unjust arrest, nonfounded), etc.

Collective freedoms  are those which several people can  exert together: press, demonstration, association, right to meet. The voting rights also belong to the category of collective freedoms: to vote has direction only if the whole of the citizens expresses his opinion.

Among these freedoms, some relate to also  the economic and social life: freedom to syndicate, strike, to choose its employment, etc.

3.   A PROGRESSIVE CONQUEST

It is in England that the personal freedom was protected most precociously.

In this country, the conquest of freedom was progressive. Since 1100, the aristocracy obtains from the king  a charter of freedoms, followed soon by  the Large Charter  of 1215 which limits the capacity of the king on the men.

The law of habeas corpus  of 1679 interdict the arbitrary imprisonment and marks, so a decisive projection in the fight for freedom and the dignity of the person.

Lastly, the Declaration of the rights of 1689, imposed to the sovereign, proclaims the guarantee of  fundamental freedoms  of the British subjects: freedom of circulation, expression, association, right of recourse against the king.

The English laws are largely discussed during all  the xviii ^E century by the French philosophers of the Lights. They inspire the American Thomas Jefferson, principal writer of the Declaration of American independence (1776) as well as the writers of the Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen of 1789.

4.   A COMBAT ALWAYS Of TOPICALITY

The rise of totalitarian modes in Europe (Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism) in the years 1930 showed at which point freedom was  a fragile asset, and the democracy a vulnerable form of government.

It thus appeared necessary, the shortly after the Second World war, to reaffirm these basic human rights. In 1948, UNO adopts  the universal Declaration of the humans right, who makes introduction and safeguarding of freedom a priority.

This one is however a right still ridiculed in many country of the world, in prey with dictatorships.

2 ^2nd   Part:  Personal freedoms

We are free, but we know that that does not authorize us to absolutely do all that we want. What the principle of freedom? Which significant freedoms each one among does enjoy us it? 

1.  Freedom, a natural right

All the democracies rest on the principle of freedom. According to this principle, all the men are free by nature: freedom is a natural right,  a basic right.  That does not want to say that each one can do all that he wants. As the men live in company and that they all are  also  free, it is necessary to fix limits at the freedom of each one to protect freedom from the others: "freedom consists in being able to do all that does not harm others" (universal Declaration of the humans right and of the citizen of 1789, article 4). As long as it is not established by the law that a behavior is dangerous for the life in company, it is authorized: freedom is the rule, prohibition the exception.

The fact of being free thus gives us rights which one precisely calls of  right-freedom, of the rights to act without being blocked (right to practise a religion, right to open a trade, right to travel, etc). It is necessary to distinguish these rights of  the right-credit, which are rights to obtain something (right to education, right to the family benefits, right to the vacation, etc).

2. Freedom and freedoms

As all that is not prohibited by the law is authorized, it is impossible to make a list of all freedoms. On the other hand, the Constitution draws up a list of  fundamental freedoms, those without which no freedom is possible, and which is particularly protected. Among these basic rights, the majority can be exerted by each one: they are the personal freedoms. Others, on the other hand, cannot be exerted by a person alone. It is necessary to be several so that they have a direction: they are collective freedoms.

 The freedom of going and coming  is also called the personal freedom in a strict sense. It is freedom to move and use its time as one wants. It is that which one is private when one is in prison. To protect it, the law punishes arbitrary detention hard, any arrest which is not necessary to justice. One can put in prison only those which are condemned for a fault punished by the law or the suspects which it is necessary to prevent from fleeing.

 The freedom of conscience  is the freedom of thought. It indicates also, more precisely, freedom to choose its religion, to practise it as it is wanted or to choose none of it. In a laic State like France, the freedom of conscience has as a limit the respect of the freedom of conscience of the others and obedience with the law, which is the same one for all without reference to religion.

 The freedom of expression  is freedom to communicate by any means (word, written, image, press, deliver, song, etc.) without the message being controlled before being made public. This control, which one calls the censure, existed in France until 1870 (beginning of the III ^E République), then was restored during the wars. There exists still today in many countries. But the absence of censure does not mean that one can say anything: it is necessary to respect  the dignity  of those about which one speaks. Thus, that which publishes charges libelous (false and that it can be false) or which reveals with the public of information, same exact, on the private life of a person which does not wish that this information be published, risk to be continued in front of justice. 

 3 ^2nd  Part:   Collective freedoms

We are not free separately, but in company. Is this for that which there are collective freedoms? Which are they? What do they have of private individual compared to the personal freedoms? 

1.  The freedoms exerted with several

The majority of freedoms are those of the person: these are rights that each one can only exert (freedom of conscience, freedom of going and coming). But certain freedoms have direction only if several people exert them together: they are called collective freedoms.

 The right of association  is the type even of collective freedom. There is association only if several people are concerned. Recognized in France since 1901, this freedom makes it possible million citizens to practise activities which are not possible that in group. So that an association exists, can sell, buy or to employ employees, it is enough that it is declared with the prefecture. The services of the prefecture are satisfied to record the declaration, without giving the least opinion on the reasons for which association is created. If an association does not respect the law, it is not sanctioned at the time of its creation, but later, by justice and on evidence drawn from its real operation.

 The right to meet  and  the freedom of demonstration  are, they also, inconceivable if they are not exerted with several. These freedoms are exerted about like the right of association. However, it is more current than they undermine the law and order: meetings gathering too many people so that the safety of each one is assured, demonstration disturbing circulation, etc. For these reasons, the law provides that the police force, in load of the law and order, can prohibit certain meetings or demonstrations.

One can also classify, among collective freedoms,  the all media  and freedom of the press, more generally, (audio-visual, Internet, etc). It is about a particular form of the freedom of expression: free transmission of information by professionals. It is thus not conceived without journalists, without bodies of press (newspapers, chains of television, etc.) and of course without public. All these actors have, indeed, need from/to each other. The freedom of the press is regulated, essentially, like the freedom of expression, but it is necessary also to take account of the constraints which the companies of press and the significant capacity undergo that the media have on the opinion.

2. Political freedoms

 The political rights,  like the voting rights, belong to collective freedoms: to vote has direction only if the community, the whole of the citizens, expresses his opinion. More generally, collective freedoms, as a whole, make it possible to the citizens to be organized, which is a condition of their participation in the public life. The freedom of the press is thus essential so that the elections are really free. The right of association is at the origin of the political parties, as well as trade unions, which gather the workers so that they can better defend their interests. Collective freedoms are the base of  the democracy. 

4 ^2nd  Part:     Limits of freedom

Even in the democracies, freedom has limits. How to make so that these limits are right? In which cases does have one to fix some? 

1. Freedom and the law: principles of the State of right

In the countries which recognize the humans right, the democracies, the men are free, but they are also equal in dignity and rights. The freedom of each one cannot thus carry wrong to the freedom of the others, which has the same value exactly. It is the direction of the definition of the freedom given by the universal Declaration of the humans right and of the citizen of 1789: "freedom consists in being able to do all that does not harm others " (article 4). Limits with freedom (a "terminal", known as the following sentence of the Declaration) are thus necessary. But the Declaration of 1789 specifies immediately afterwards: "this terminal can be fixed only by the law". One cannot thus restrict freedoms anyhow: one needs a law, discussed and voted by the representatives of the people. The law, indeed, is "the expression of the general will" (article 6 of the Declaration).

No public authority (minister, mayor, the main thing of college, etc.) thus the harbour due does not have reached to the freedom of somebody if it did not receive the capacity of a law from it. The decisions of the administrations which do not respect the law are arbitrary, in fact abuse of powers can be cancelled by the administrative judge. We are thus in a mode where,  to protect freedom, everyone, including the government,  is subjected to the law and the control of the judges: it is what one calls a State of right. The law itself cannot suspend fundamental freedoms. It must indeed respect the Constitution and certain treaties signed by France, which protect these freedoms.

2. Conflicts of freedoms

When two also recognized and also valid freedoms are in conflict, the law must intervene. It slices by regulating freedoms in question: it becomes possible  to reconcile  two freedoms or of knowing which has priority and in which case.

Freedom to undertake is one of the aspects of freedom. Each one is free to create a company, but also to buy that of another to join together it with his, to do what one calls a concentration. But, if a concentration are done in the field of the press or the audio-visual one, the pluralism of information (the expression of the different opinions) to be threatened risk and, with him, freedom of the press. This is why the French law prohibited the concentration of the companies of information beyond a certain threshold.

3. Freedom and the law and order

Freedoms can also be regulated  to guarantee the law and order. One thus calls the whole of the conditions which make it possible the law to be applied: justice can, for example, to continue, make stop and condemn the authors of infringements. Form also part of the law and order, the respect of principles recognized by the Constitution, like the human dignity, to which no freedom can carry reached.

Thus, the freedom of conscience makes that all the beliefs are accomodated in France. But if it is proven that a movement which thinks religious undermines the dignity of its members, by humiliating treatments or by them making act under the constraint, this movement (which one then calls a sect) can be continued and dissolved by justice. 

the conquest of the right to education

      the conquest of the right to education

Today, in the majority of the countries of the world, it is the school which ensures the education of all the children. This  school for all  is public, free and obligatory. But it is the case only since the end of  the xix ^E century: previously, the instruction was reserved to privileged people, with an elite, and the school for all spent time to be essential. The history of the school can thus be regarded as  a conquest of the right to education.

This right to education, recognized nowadays like  a right of the child, however is not guaranteed in the whole world. There are very great inequalities between the rich countries and the poor countries in the access to the education which they are able to offer.

1.   NEED FOR TRANSMITTING ALWAYS EXISTED KNOWLEDGE A

In the old companies, it is the group which ensures the transmission of knowledge and the rules of life young people. What is significant, it is that the savoirs are transmitted of one generation to the other, and that the entire group benefits from the knowledge of each one. The training is done on the mode of the imitation  and by rites of initiation. It rests primarily on the word, on  the oral tradition  (nothing is written). 

The transmission of the savoirs plays a fundamental role in  the cohesion of the group.

2.   The SCHOOL IS BORN WITH the WRITING 

The school is born with the appearance of the writing, 5 000 years ago. The writing makes it possible to fix the savoirs and the principles of life which the men want to transmit to the following generations. 

The first systems of education  appear in the great empires which are born in Egypt, India and China. The leaders of these great empires need  civils servant trained  to help them  to ensure the stability  of their country. Economic prosperity and the needs for the administration thus allow the installation  of specialized agencies  whose role is to transmit knowledge: the school was born. 

3.   THE FIRST SCHOOLS EXEMPT A RELIGIOUS TEACHING WITH THE PRIVILEGED PEOPLE

In addition to teaching of the reading and writing, the first schools teach the religious and philosophical principles. The lesson is indeed a primarily monk and it is generally  to the priests  that is entrusted the responsibility to preserve and to transmit the knowledge. 

The lesson "is sacrilized ": it is impossible to criticize them or to modify them. The pupils must generally  learn by heart. The school worries little about the intellectual development of each one. 

Moreover, nothing are planned for the poor, which do not have to exert responsibilities, nor for the girls, whose traditional role is confined within the framework of the house.

4.   The GREEK PHILOSOPHERS EMPHASIZE The TRAINING OF The INDIVIDUAL AND The CITIZEN

The first reflexions on what must be the school are born in Greece during Antiquity. Many schools of philosophy are open. Their objective is not only any more to inculcate preestablished savoirs, but more especially to lead the pupils  to reflect  and  to make progress knowledge. The first true  programs of teaching  are thus set up in Greece, then in Rome. It is as of this time as date teaching division in three degrees: primary education, secondary, academic.

For the Greek philosopher  Socrate, for example, all the defects come from ignorance. It is thus significant to train all the men "Knows oneself, yourself", likes it to repeat. For him, knowledge is not in the books, it is built by the reasoning and the contact with the direct teaching of a Master. This method is a revolution because it makes  confidence with the intelligence more than with the memory.

For Socrate and its successors (such as  Plato  and  Aristote), it is also necessary  to train citizens  able to exert the democracy.

The generous principles of the Greek thought should not however make forget its  great elitism: teaching is always reserved for a small number of individuals.

5.   THE FIRST UNIVERSITIES APPEAR WITH THE MIDDLE AGES

With the Middle Ages, the strength of teaching dies out a little everywhere in the whole of the Western Christian world: knowledge is locked up again behind the walls of the monasteries.

However, starting from  the xi ^E century, is born a new dash for the studies, in particular thanks to philosophers and theologists like Pierre Abélard and especially  holy Thomas d' Aquin. It is at the time medieval that the higher education starts to be released from the control of the Church, and that the first universities  are founded  (Oxford in 1133, Salamanque in 1218, Sorbonne in 1257, Cambridge in 1284, Montpellier in 1289, Bologna in 1317, Heidelberg in 1386, etc).

In parallel also with the Middle Ages the vocational training  develops, through the corporations where côtoient themselves main, companions and  apprentices.

6.   The HUMANISTIC Ones AND The PHILOSOPHERS OF The LIGHTS PREACH A NEW VISION OF EDUCATION

To the xvi ^E century, the humanistic ones rediscover the authors of Antiquity and defend the idea that it is the man, and not God, who must occupy the central position in the world. The design of teaching is of course upset by these new ideas, whose very recent printing works allows the broad diffusion.

Writers like Montaigne and Rabelais thus preach  a new vision of education, at the same time in its objective and its methods, like in its ambition. It is about  a complete formation  (all arts, all sciences, but also the body), also turned towards  the blooming of the individual. Concretely however, besides some initiatives local which try to apply the new ideas, teaching hardly changes.

To the xviii ^E century,  philosophers  as Rousseau  criticize the traditional methods of teaching. They think that each pupil should be able to discover the knowledge, freely and  without constraint. Other philosophers insist especially on the importance of the broadest teaching and  most ambitious  possible, so that each individual can carry out his potential within the company and take part in  the political life.

7.   The FRENCH REVOLUTION AFFIRMS the IDEA OF The SCHOOL FOR ALL

It is in this context that in 1789 the French revolution  takes place. Among the revolutionists, those which are in favour of the democracy preach also the installation  of the school for all. The majority of the ideas which will make it possible to build the modern school are thus expressed for the revolutionary period:

–the instruction is essential for the democracy. It must be addressed to all the individuals without exception, including the girls. It must thus be free and obligatory;

–the instruction concerns  the responsibility for the State. It must be public and laic and nonprivate and denominational (i.e. religious). The professors must thus be civils servant of the State, specifically trained for their function.

However, the revolutionary government does not manage to apply these ideas. It is finally  Napoleon,  at the beginning of  the xix ^E century, which creates secondary and university education public. However, primary education teaching remains private and paying essentially, always with the load of the Church. The majority of the modest children of families are constrained to work with the factory.

8.   THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION CREATES A REQUEST FOR FORMATION

To the xix ^E century, technical progress and increasing industrialization radically change the needs for the European companies as regards education. Up to that point, the majority of the economic activities did not require semi-skilled labour. From now on, the companies need to recruit better and better trained workmen and executives, and the State, if he wants to accompany the economic advancement by the country, must answer effectively this  request for formation.

9.   The LAWS JULES FERRY FOUND the PUBLIC SCHOOL, FREE AND OBLIGATORY

In France, the reforms favorable to the introduction of the school for all take place throughout xix ^E  century, and in particular  III ^E République  (1870-1940). They lead to the adoption of the laws Jules Ferry (1880-1882) which issue a public primary school , laic, free and obligatory, for the girls as for the boys.

Thus, at the end of the xix ^E century, the ideas of the French revolution are converted into  a right to the elementary instruction. Illiteracy regresses quickly in France. The other countries of Europe follow at the same period a comparable evolution. Exemption from payment of the college, then college, is essential in the years 1930.

10.               The RIGHT To EDUCATION BECOMES A HUMAN RIGHT AND A RIGHT OF The CHILD

The right to education is finally recognized in France and in the world to the medium of  the xx ^E century. One attends  a democratization of the studies.

It remains however much to make, in particular to reduce  the inequalities of the chances, in particular in the secondary and for the access to the higher studies, to accomodate the handicapped children and to support those in great difficulty of training. In the same way, if the school school and works are free with the primary education as with the secondary, the access to the culture (books, museums, etc.) is not it. Finally, certain children leave the school with an insufficient luggage to allow them to fit in the company and to express their potential there.

At the dawn of the III ^E thousand-year-old, the school for all the children of the world is still not a reality. To make so that all the children of the world, girls like boys, have access to a primary education teaching and have equal chances to enter the secondary, as the International Convention  of the rights of the child envisages it  is one of the priorities of UNO and its agency which is devoted to childhood, Unicef: it is a stake of  international solidarity.

la conquête du droit à l'éducation

       la conquête du droit à l'éducation

Aujourd'hui, dans la majorité des pays du monde, ce est l'école qui assure l'éducation de tous les enfants. Cette école pour tous est publique, gratuite et obligatoire. Mais ce est le cas que depuis la fin du xix ^e siècle: auparavant, l'instruction a été réservé aux privilégiés, avec une élite, et l'école pour tout le temps passé à être essentielle. L'histoire de l'école peut donc être considérée comme une conquête du droit à l'éducation .      

Ce droit à l'éducation, reconnu aujourd'hui comme un droit de l'enfant , ne est toutefois pas garantie dans le monde entier. Il ya de très grandes inégalités entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres dans l'accès à l'éducation dont ils sont en mesure d'offrir. 

1.    BESOIN DE TRANSMISSION toujours existé CONNAISSANCES A

Dans les sociétés anciennes, ce est le groupe qui assure la transmission des connaissances et les règles de la vie des jeunes. Ce qui est significatif, ce est que les savoirs sont transmis d'une génération à l'autre, et que le groupe profite à l'ensemble de la connaissance de chacun. La formation se fait sur ​​le mode de l'imitation  et par des rites de l'initiation . Il repose essentiellement sur ​​le mot, sur la tradition orale (rien ne est écrit).    

La transmission des savoirs joue un rôle fondamental dans la cohésion du groupe . 

2.    L'école est née avec l'écriture 

L'école est née avec l'apparition de l'écriture, il ya 5 000 ans. L'écriture permet de fixer les savoirs et les principes de la vie que les hommes veulent transmettre aux générations suivantes. 

Les premiers systèmes d'éducation  apparaissent dans les grands empires qui sont nés en Egypte, l'Inde et la Chine. Les dirigeants de ces grands empires doivent Civils serviteur formés pour les aider à assurer la stabilité de leur pays. La prospérité économique et les besoins de l'administration permettent ainsi l'installation des institutions spécialisées dont le rôle est de transmettre des connaissances: l'école est né.          

3.    Les écoles d'abord dispenser un enseignement religieux AVEC les privilégiés

En plus de l'enseignement de la lecture et l'écriture, les premières écoles enseignent les principes religieux et philosophiques. La leçon est en effet un moine et surtout il est généralement aux prêtres qui est confiée la responsabilité de préserver et de transmettre le savoir.    

La leçon " est sacralisé ": il est impossible de les critiquer ou de les modifier. Les élèves doivent généralement apprendre par cœur . Les petits soucis sur le développement intellectuel de chacun scolaires.   

En outre, rien ne est prévu pour les pauvres, qui ne ont pas d'exercer les responsabilités, ni pour les filles, dont le rôle se limite traditionnelle dans le cadre de la maison.

4.    Les philosophes grecs accent sur ​​la formation de l'individu et du citoyen

Les premières réflexions sur ce que doit être l'école sont nés en Grèce durant l'Antiquité. De nombreuses écoles de la philosophie sont ouverts. Leur objectif ne est pas seulement plus d'inculquer savoirs préétablis, mais aussi et surtout d'amener les élèves à réfléchir et à faire progresser les connaissances . Les premiers véritables programmes d'enseignement sont ainsi mis en place en Grèce, puis à Rome. Ce est dès cette époque que la division date de l'enseignement en trois degrés: enseignement primaire, secondaire, universitaire.         

Pour le philosophe grec Socrate , par exemple, tous les défauts proviennent de l'ignorance. Il est donc important de former tous les hommes "se connaît, toi-même», aime à répéter. Pour lui, la connaissance ne est pas dans les livres, il est construit par le raisonnement et le contact avec l'enseignement direct d'un Maître. Cette méthode est une révolution car elle fait confiance à l'intelligence plus avec la mémoire .   

Pour Socrate et ses successeurs (tels que Platon et Aristote ), il est également nécessaire de former des citoyens capables d'exercer la démocratie.        

Les généreux principes de la pensée grecque ne doivent cependant pas faire oublier sa grande élitisme : l'enseignement est toujours réservé pour un petit nombre d'individus. 

5.    LES UNIVERSITÉS abord apparaître au Moyen Âge

Au Moyen Âge, la force de l'enseignement se éteint un peu partout dans l'ensemble du monde chrétien occidental: la connaissance est enfermé à nouveau derrière les murs des monastères.

Cependant, à partir de la xi ^e siècle, est né un nouvel élan pour les études, en particulier grâce à des philosophes et des théologiens comme Pierre Abélard et surtout saint Thomas d 'Aquin . Ce est à l'époque médiévale que l'enseignement supérieur commence à être libéré du contrôle de l'Église, et que les premières universités sont fondées (Oxford en 1133, Salamanque en 1218, Sorbonne en 1257, Cambridge en 1284, Montpellier en 1289, Bologne en 1317, Heidelberg en 1386, etc).       

En parallèle aussi avec le Moyen Age la formation professionnelle  développe, à travers les sociétés où se côtoient principales, compagnons et apprentis . 

6.    Les humanistes et les philosophes des Lumières prêcher UNE NOUVELLE VISION DE L'ÉDUCATION

Pour le xvi ^e siècle, les humanistes redécouvrir les auteurs de l'Antiquité et de défendre l'idée que ce est l'homme et non Dieu, qui doivent occuper la position centrale dans le monde. La conception de l'enseignement est bien sûr bouleversé par ces nouvelles idées, dont l'impression très récente fonctionne permet le large diffusion.

Des écrivains comme Montaigne et Rabelais prêchent donc une nouvelle vision de l'éducation , en même temps dans son objectif et ses méthodes, comme dans son ambition. Il se agit d' une formation complète (tous les arts, toutes les sciences, mais aussi le corps), également tourné vers l'épanouissement de l'individu . Concrètement cependant, à part quelques initiatives locales qui tentent d'appliquer les nouvelles idées, l'enseignement ne change guère.      

Pour le xviii ^e siècle, des philosophes comme Rousseau critiquent les méthodes traditionnelles d'enseignement . Ils pensent que chaque élève devrait être en mesure de découvrir les connaissances, librement et sans contrainte . D'autres philosophes insistent notamment sur ​​l'importance de l'enseignement le plus large et le plus ambitieux possible, afin que chaque individu peut réaliser son potentiel au sein de l'entreprise et prendre part à la vie politique .           

7.    La révolution FRANÇAIS AFFIRME l'idée de l'école pour tous

Ce est dans ce contexte qu'en 1789 la révolution française  a lieu. Parmi les révolutionnaires, ceux qui sont en faveur de la démocratie prêche aussi l'installation de l'école pour tous . La majorité des idées qui permettront de construire l'école moderne sont ainsi exprimé pour la période révolutionnaire: 

-le instruction est essentiel pour la démocratie . Il doit être adressée à tous les individus sans exception, y compris les filles. Il doit donc être gratuite et obligatoire;

-le instruction concerne la responsabilité de l'État . Il doit être publique et non privée et laïque et confessionnel (c.-à-religieux). Les professeurs doivent donc être serviteur Civils de l'Etat, spécialement formés pour leur fonction. 

Cependant, le gouvernement révolutionnaire ne parvient pas à appliquer ces idées. Ce est finalement Napoléon, au début du xix ^e siècle, qui crée l'enseignement public secondaire et universitaire. Cependant, l'enseignement primaire reste privé et payer essentiellement, toujours à la charge de l'Eglise. La majorité des enfants de familles modestes sont contraints de travailler avec l'usine.    

8.    LA RÉVOLUTION INDUSTRIELLE CRÉE UNE DEMANDE DE FORMATION

Pour le xix ^e siècle, le progrès technique et l'industrialisation croissante changent radicalement les besoins pour les entreprises européennes en matière d'éducation. Jusqu'à ce moment, la majorité des activités économiques ne exigeait pas la main-d'œuvre semi-qualifiée. A partir de maintenant, les entreprises ont besoin de recruter des ouvriers et des cadres de mieux en mieux formés, et l'État, se il veut accompagner le progrès économique par le pays, doit répondre efficacement à cette demande de formation . 

9.    Les lois Jules Ferry FOUND l'école publique, gratuite et obligatoire

En France, les réformes favorables à l'introduction de l'école pour tous ont lieu tout au long xix ^e  siècle, et en particulier III ^E République (1870-1940). Ils conduisent à l'adoption des lois Jules Ferry (1880-1882) qui émettent public l'école primaire , laïque, gratuite et obligatoire , pour les filles comme pour les garçons.   

Ainsi, à la fin du xix ^e siècle, les idées de la Révolution française sont converties en un droit à l'enseignement primaire . L'analphabétisme régresse rapidement en France. Les autres pays d'Europe suivent à la même période une évolution comparable. Exonération du paiement du collège, puis le collège, est essentiel dans les années 1930. 

10.                Le droit à l'éducation devient un droit humain et un droit de l'enfant

Le droit à l'éducation est enfin reconnu en France et dans le monde au milieu du xx ^e siècle. On assiste à une démocratisation des études .   

Il reste cependant beaucoup à faire, en particulier pour réduire les inégalités des chances , en particulier dans le secondaire et pour l'accès aux études supérieures, pour accueillir les enfants handicapés et à soutenir ceux qui en grande difficulté de la formation. De la même manière, si l'école et les travaux scolaires sont gratuits avec l'enseignement primaire avec le secondaire, l'accès à la culture (livres, musées, etc.) est-ce pas. Enfin, certains enfants quittent l'école avec un bagage insuffisant pour leur permettre de suivre dans l'entreprise et d'exprimer leur potentiel. 

A l'aube du III ^e mille ans, l'école pour tous les enfants du monde ne est pas encore une réalité. Pour faire en sorte que tous les enfants du monde, filles comme garçons, avoir accès à un enseignement primaire et avoir les mêmes chances d'entrer dans le secondaire, la Convention internationale   des droits de l'enfant prévoit qu'il   est l'une des priorités de l'ONU et son agence, qui est consacrée à l'enfance, l'Unicef ​​: ce est un enjeu de solidarité internationale . 

Droits of the man

                  Droits of the man

1		PRESENTATION

Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen

Spades, beams and Phrygian cap fall under the revolutionary symbolic system, which multiplies the references to Antiquity. The top of the table, the figure of France breaking the chains of oppression answers the winged Freedom whose sceptre is pointed towards the radiating triangle of the Equality, in the center of which the eye incarne the Vigilance.Jean-Jacques François the Barber (allotted to), Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen [ 1789 ], "Monarchy, holding the broken chains of Tyranny, and the genius of the Nation, holding the spectrum of the capacity, surround the preamble of the declaration", end of the xviii E century. Oil on wood, 71 × 56 cm. Museum Carnavalet, Paris.

humans right, together of the basic rights inherent in the human nature.

Resulting from the designs of the natural right, which melt their philosophical statute, the humans right were the subject of a progressive recognition in substantive law since the proclamation of the Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen by the French revolutionists in 1789. This recognition results today in increased jurisdictional protection a as well at the European level as at the national level. Indeed, of many States, whose France, obtained mechanisms supporting the recourse in front of the judge in the event of attack to the humans right such as they are guaranteed by the texts of international significance.

2

AN IDEA DEVOTED BY PHILOSOPHY

2. 1

Origins of the humans right

If the design of the humans right derives essentially from the theories from the natural right, it however also borrows from those of the "historical right". Founded by  the Treaty of the right of the war and the peace  (1625) of Hugo Grotius, in particular developed by the totalitarian vision of  Léviathan  (1651) of Thomas Hobbes and by the democratic theories of  the social Contract  (1762) of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the natural right is based on the abstract figure of the individual to the state of nature and on the concept, variously interpreted, of "social contract". Beyond their oppositions, the feature common to all the designs jusnaturalists, concerned by Pufendorf (1632-1694) in its study  Swears Naturae and Gentium  ("natural right and law of nations", 1672), is to give to the capacity an undeniable rational base which makes it possible to the individuals to escape arbitrary and to find spaces of freedoms.

The theorists of the historical right did not design the State like a machine, made independent wheels, but rather like an organization, fact of members and bodies which can exist and develop only because they are primarily related the ones to the others. Defended in Germany by Savigny (1779-1861), the school of the historical right posed in theory that it was not "any human existence which fully singular and is isolated perfectly". The historical right did not pose the problems in term of social contract or association, but in term of institution, possibilities of integration, or "right of resistance" of the citizen to the social pressure. It brought to the designs humans right the idea that the institutions proceeded of the habit more often than of the reflexion, and than the individuals could exert a determining influence on their evolution.

2. 2

Definition of a universal community

In the history, the idea that one was done rights of each one varied according to times'. The Romans founded certainly a whole of rights, but their pleasure was exclusively reserved to the citizens. The feudal order distinguished between the rights of the lords and those of the commoners, organizing a company where the rights which each one held were related directly to its social state. A long time one limited the recognition of the rights to the membership. The idea that the individuals can recognize themselves in a community vaster than that of the nations or ethnos groups is relatively recent.It echoes the diffusion of the accounts of voyage and with discovered other people, and gave place to an awakening only with the diffusion of the spirit of the Lights, if one excludes Las Put.

In Base of the metaphysics of manners  (1785), Kant managed to state the philosophical principle on which were grafted the whole of the humans right. Humanity must always be also treated "like an end, and never simply like a means". While abstaining from any cultural or religious reference, to speak only about the man, the thought was detached from particularisms to aim to the universality. Its essential contribution consists, according to words' of Simone Weil, to push back, in the public affairs, temptation to consider that "the community is above human being".

2. 3

Critical of the humans right

Marx, who underlined the difference existing between formal freedoms and real freedoms, reproached the concept of humans right to limit itself to an "egoistic" design of the individual interests, based on the right of ownership and the theoretical opposition between the individual and the company. The evolution of the means of production and communication in the contemporary world reinforced the weight of this criticism by underlining the inequalities between the men. It is to be noticed, however, that the critic Marxist, expressed in particular in  the Jewish Question  (1843), did not relate to the idea even of the humans right, but on the interpretation which had been done by it in the American Constitution and in those which claim heritage of the French revolution.

3		A POSITIVE LEGAL PRINCIPLE

3. 1

Bases of the legislation of the humans right

The large text of reference is the Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen of 27 August 1789, rich of seventeen articles, which solemnly proclaims a certain number of basic rights. The Declaration of 1789 finds its origin, not only in the designs of the natural right, but also in a certain tradition of the Christianity, which makes Gospels the base of an egalitarian philosophy. In a very different way, these two currents however allowed the evolution of mentalities towards the recognition of rights attached to quality of Man. More directly, the writings of the philosophers of the Lights, such Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in particular his famous work entitled  Of the social contract  (1762), as well as the Declaration of independence of July 4, 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson, and the Declaration of the Capital duties of the State of Virginia of June 12, 1776, constituted the essence of the inspiration of the revolutionists of 1789.

The Declaration of 1789 thus indicates which are the rights inherent in the human nature, which cover at the same time the rights of the person (see  public Libertés), but also the political rights (right to the participation in the public affairs) and, for certain analysts, the social rights, without however guaranteeing their promotion juridically. This last point constitutes one of ambiguities of the concept: indeed, the humans right seem an ideal to reach, and nothing guarantees that the whole of the political régimes concretely implement them.

In France, however, the Constitution of the O C République renews solemnly in its preamble "its attachment with the humans right such as they are defined by the Declaration of 1789" and thus gives a constitutional range to these rights. The French substantive law gives by a the great majority of them a normative character, and attaches to their recognition a protective legal status. Thus are protected by the intermediary from the various branches from the right (civil law, criminal law, administrative law) the right to freedom, the property, the safety of the people, the right to resist oppression, etc.

The humans right do not correspond exactly to the concept of public freedoms, which one can define as the whole of the legal standards which guarantee the exercise of the rights and freedoms. The right of public freedoms thus constitutes part of the substantive law of the humans right, but it does not exhaust the concept, insofar as all the humans right necessarily did not receive legal dedication.

3. 2

Jurisdictional protection in France

The protection of the humans right in France is exerted at the same time with respect to the law and the administration, when they are likely to attack the humans right and to the public freedoms guaranteed by the Preamble to the French Constitution of October 4, 1958 and by the Constitution itself.

3.2. 1

The constitutional Council

In the exercise of its mission, the constitutional Council can prevent that a proposal or a bill which would violate one of the constitutional provisions does not come into effect while censuring the text which is subjected to him. Thus, the constitutional Council, in its decision of January 9, 1980, censured the law establishing  the procedure  of expulsion from abroad which envisaged the intervention of a judge only at the end of seven days, estimating that "the personal freedom [ could ] to be safeguarded only if the judge intervenes as soon as possible possible" (see  Immigration).

3.2. 2

Jurisdictions of the legal order

Article 66 of the Constitution lays out expressly that the legal authority is guardian of freedoms and, for this reason, the judges of the legal order (civil judge and penal judge) are the natural persons in charge for the jurisdictional protection of the rights and freedoms. In accordance with article 136 of the Code of penal procedure, only the legal jurisdictions are qualified to come to a conclusion about all the arbitrary cases of detention, that the Constitution, in its article 66, prohibits by principle. Only the penal judge, in the name of the principle of plenitude of jurisdiction, can appreciate the legality of the notes taken by the administration (payments, decrees) being used as base with the continuations and decide cancellation of it if it considers their contents illegal. However, it does not have the capacity to grant a compensation to the victim, this capacity being reserved with the administrative jurisdictions. Lastly, the legal judge, with penal as with civil, has the capacity to make good the damage undergone by the victims of way in fact, term indicating any situation where the administration carried reached to a fundamental freedom or made a particularly serious irregularity.

3.2. 3

Administrative jurisdiction

The role of the administrative jurisdictions is also very significant, since the judges of the administrative order are brought to judge acts of the administration and its agents which undermine the humans right and to public freedoms. The administrative judge intervenes on the level of the administrative acts taken by the authorities, which it can cancel or suspend within the framework of the procedure of the recourse for abuse of power. This jurisdictional recourse allows managed to make cancel regulations which violate their basic rights. The procedure of the recourse for abuse of power, obligatorily directed against a decision, obeys particularly simple rules, since one can write his request on plain paper and that the assistance of a lawyer is not obligatory, which ensures a very easy access of the whole of justiciable the administrative courts.

3. 3		Jurisdictional protection within the international framework

There is not truly international jurisdiction gathering under its competence the whole of the Member States of the United Nations, which would have the role to ensure the protection of the humans right that many conventions proclaim (universal Declaration of the humans right of 1948, Pactes of 1966). On the other hand, at the European level, it was instituted within the framework of the Council of Europe, a directly charged body and exclusively to examine and judge the violations by States as regards humans right and of public freedoms, the European Court of the humans right.

The text of reference which melts the recourse to the Court is the European Convention of the humans right and of fundamental freedoms, adopted in 1950. Convention sanctions many rights, which they are individual or collective, like the right to the freedom of expression, the freedom of conscience, the respect of the private life, or the right to the association and right to meet. Convention establishes a jurisdictional procedure complexes making it possible either the States or with the individuals, if their State of origin accepted the individual recourse, to make available of the Court the violations of Convention. At the end of the procedure, the State can be condemned to pour damages with the victim, but, generally, such a judgment encourages the State condemned to adopt a new legislation in conformity with the European Convention of safeguard of the humans right and of fundamental freedoms.

Within the Organization of the American States (OAS), gathering trente-trois States of the America zone, there is also a court, called inter-American Cour of the humans right, whose role and missions are similar to those of the European Court of the humans right. In the same way, the Organization of African Unity devoted its attachment to the humans right in 1981 by adopting a African Charter of the humans right and People and by founding a commission also charged to make apply the provisions of the Charter, which however does not envisage the creation of a purely jurisdictional body.