les changements climatiques dans le monde

les changements climatiques

Les changements du climat sont dus à deux facteurs naturels : les variations de la quantité d’énergie solaire reçue à la surface de la Terre et les variations de la trajectoire (orbite) de la Terre autour du Soleil.

Mais en plus de cette évolution naturelle, le climat est de plus en plus influencé par les activités polluantes des hommes.

Y A-T-IL DÉJÀ EU DES CHANGEMENTS CLIMATIQUES 

DANS LE PASSÉ ?

Le climat a toujours évolué depuis la formation de la Terre, il y a 4,5 milliards d’années. Les fluctuations du climat passé (appelé paléoclimat) sont donc normales et naturelles. Il y a eu des périodes glaciaires très froides et très longues (d’une durée de 80 000 à 100 000 ans), suivies par des périodes interglaciaires plus chaudes mais plus courtes (durée de 10 000 ans environ).

QUAND SE SONT PASSÉES LES DERNIÈRES PÉRIODES GLACIAIRES ET INTERGLACIAIRES ?

La dernière période interglaciaire a eu lieu il y a 120 000 ans. La dernière période glaciaire s’est déroulée il y a 18 000 ans. La température était alors 5 °C plus basse qu’au début des années 2000 (température moyenne actuelle de 15 °C). Le niveau de la mer était de 120 mètres inférieur à celui d’aujourd’hui.

Puis, il y a environ 12 000 ans, a débuté l’holocène, une époque marquée par un réchauffement climatique qui se poursuit encore en ce début du xxi^e siècle. Ce réchauffement a entraîné la fonte des énormes calottes de glace aux pôles et la disparition des mammouths (il y a environ 10 000 ans).

Il y a également eu une période très courte (du xv^e au xix^e siècle) appelée le « petit âge de glace ». Durant cette période, la température a diminué de 1 °C en moyenne en Europe du Nord.

COMMENT LES HOMMES INFLUENT-ILS SUR LE CLIMAT ?

Les hommes influencent le climat par leurs activités polluantes : pollution atmosphérique due aux industries et aux transports (surtout les voitures).

Ces activités rejettent dans l’atmosphère des gaz appelés gaz à effet de serre. Ces gaz provoquent un effet de serre sur l’ensemble de la planète, ce qui fait augmenter la température moyenne de la Terre. Cette influence des hommes a commencé au début du xx^e siècle (début de la période industrielle) et ne cesse d’augmenter.

QUELLES SONT LES CONSÉQUENCES DE L’ACTION DES HOMMES SUR LE CLIMAT ?

Au cours du xx^e siècle, les observations des scientifiques ont indiqué une augmentation de 0,6 °C de la température moyenne de la planète. Le niveau des mers a également augmenté de 10 à 20 cm. Ces évolutions sont si rapides et si importantes qu’elles n’ont pu être causées que par les gaz à effet de serre rejetés par les industries et les véhicules.

Les années 1990 ont été les plus chaudes du xx^e siècle. Et c’est l’année 1998 qui a été l’année la plus chaude de toutes.

QUELS SERONT LES CHANGEMENTS CLIMATIQUES DANS LE FUTUR ?

Les scientifiques pensent que la température moyenne de la planète va augmenter de 1,8 à 4 °C d’ici la fin du xxi^e siècle (données les plus optimistes, issues d’un rapport réalisé en 2007 par le Groupe intergouvernemental sur l’évolution du climat — GIEC).

Si cela se vérifie, le niveau des mers va monter de 18 à 59 cm. Les phénomènes extrêmes (inondations, sécheresses, tornades) seront plus nombreux et plus puissants.

Même si les pollutions industrielles s’arrêtaient rapidement, le changement climatique en cours continuerait encore plusieurs dizaines d’années.

QUELLES LOIS ONT ÉTÉ ADOPTÉES POUR LIMITER CE CHANGEMENT DU CLIMAT ?

La conférence de Kyoto, qui s’est déroulée au Japon en 1997, a fixé une loi pour lutter contre le réchauffement climatique en cours. Cette loi impose une réduction des émissions des gaz à effet de serre dans l’atmosphère. Cette réduction devrait être de 5,2 % d’ici 2008-2012 (par rapport au taux de 1990).

Grâce à la signature de 141 pays, le texte de loi du traité de Kyoto est applicable depuis le 16 février 2005. Toutefois, les États-Unis n’ont toujours pas voté cette loi, alors qu’ils sont les premiers pollueurs de la planète.

POUR ALLER PLUS LOIN

→ le climat et la météo
→ l’atmosphère
→ l’effet de serre
→ la couche d’ozone
→ la pollution de l’air

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PÊCHE MIRACULEUSE: ILS DECOUVRENT 2.000 PIECES D'OR AU FOND DE LA MER...

C'est le plus important trésor numismatique jamais mis au jour en Israël. Des plongeurs ont découvert, au fond du port antique de Césarée, 2.000 pièces d'or vieilles de 1.000 ans, annonce l'autorité israélienne des antiquités mardi 17 février.
Les membres d'un club de plongée ont fait la découverte totalement par hasard. Une pêche dont auraient rêvé la plupart des archéologue. Pourquoi le trésor n'a-t-il été découvert que maintenant ? Plusieurs tempêtes ont remué les fonds marins du port antique de Césarée.
"Ils ont d'abord cru avoir repéré une pièce de jeu" et ne se sont détrompés que quand ils ont ramassé plusieurs pièces, explique l'autorité. Ils ont alerté le directeur de leur club qui, à son tour, a informé l'autorité des antiquités.
C'est l'institut qui a ensuite pris en charge les recherches. Les plongeurs ont détecté environ 2.000 pièces en dinars, demi-dinars et quarts de dinars. La plus ancienne pièce a été frappée à Palerme, en Sicile, dans la seconde moitié du IXe siècle.
La plupart des pièces remontent à deux califes fatimides, qui ont régné de la fin du Xe siècle au premier tiers du XIe sur un territoire recouvrant une grande partie de l'Afrique du Nord, la Sicile et une partie du Proche-Orient.
En excellent état de conservation malgré un millier d'années passées au fond de l'eau, les pièces n'ont même pas eu besoin d'être nettoyées, indique Robert Cole, un expert en numismatique. Certaines portent des traces de morsure montrant que leurs propriétaires ont éprouvé leur qualité avec leurs dents. D'autres encore paraissent tout juste avoir été frappées.
D'où provient ce trésor ?
L'autorité espère que l'étude du contexte permettra d'en savoir plus.
La dynastie fatimide passe pour avoir été fabuleusement riche. Son avènement a coïncidé avec un renouveau du commerce maritime dans l'est du bassin méditerranéen. Césarée, construite par le roi de Judée Hérode 1er au 1er siècle av. J.-C., et d'autres villes portuaires se sont développées sous la coupe des Fatimides. Le commerce entre musulmans et croisés a prospéré en temps de paix, sans cesser en temps de guerre.
Les vestiges importants des époques romaine et médiévale font de Césarée un des grands sites touristiques d'Israël.

La voiture préférée de Cristiano Ronaldo

La voiture préférée de Cristiano Ronaldo !

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Greatest military powers in 2015

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Crime counters humanity

           Crime counters humanity

crime counters humanity, category of criminal infringements including the assassination, the extermination, the reduction in slavery, the deportation and any other inhuman act made against any civil population before or during the war, as well as persecutions for political, racial reasons or monk  —whom these acts or persecutions constituted or not a violation of the national law of the country where they were perpetrated.

This definition was given by article 6, subparagraph C, of the statute of the court of Nuremberg, the international military tribunal charged to judge the criminals of the Second World war, in Europe (see  War crimes). In Asia, the agreement of London of August 8, 1945 instituted a court in Tokyo, which was charged to judge the criminals of the Far East.

The definition perduré in spite of the disappearance of the two jurisdictions and was taken again, with some modifications, in several International Conventions (conventions of the United Nations of December 9, 1948 and December 26, 1968).

One distinguishes the crimes against humanity from the war crimes and the crimes against peace, also definite during the agreement of London of 1945. The crimes against peace are consisted the direction, the release or the continuation of a war of aggression, in violation of the treaties or international agreements. The war crimes correspond to the violation of the laws and the habits of the war. Thus, are prohibited the assassination, the ill treatments and the deportations for forced work  —or any other goal — of the civil populations in the occupied territories, the assassination or the ill treatments of the prisoners of war, the plundering of the public and deprived goods (see  Guerre). The prohibition of the crimes against peace had been stated already in the pact of the Company of the Nations and in the Briand-Kellog pact of August 27, 1928. The prohibition of the war crimes as for it was contained in conventions of the Hague of 1899 and 1907. However, no penal sanction was envisaged in the event of violation of these international prohibitions.

The repression of the crimes against humanity is organized in a very different way according to whether an international jurisdiction or a national jurisdiction of it is charged. The courts of Nuremberg and Tokyo were created especially to judge and punish the criminals of the Second World war and disappeared at the same time as their mission was completed. However, of new organizations were instituted since: the establishment of the international penal Tribunal (TPI) of the Hague, decided within the framework of UNO (resolution 827 of the Security Council of May 25, 1993), answers the same requirement to judge the war criminals, but this time in ex-Yugoslavia. The statute of each one of these ad hoc  courts  (created for the circumstance only) envisages the crimes and the sanctions which the court will have to judge and determines the procedure which will be followed before the Court. The States must then accept, not only the jurisdiction of the Court, i.e. the competence and the authority of its decisions, but also to cooperate with the international court in order to deliver the defendants. This poses many problems of national sovereignty and international police force and supposes that each State adopts a law organizing the dispossession of its own penal legal system to the profit of the international authority.

There is not permanent international penal jurisdiction which would be competent to judge the authors of the crimes against odious humanity and another crimes for the human conscience, in spite of the many elaborate projects either at the international level or at the European level. Consequently, it returns to the national laws to envisage the methods of repression of these crimes. In France, the new French Penal code organizes from now on the repression of these crimes, thus supplementing the decisions of the Court of cassation, elaborate at the time of the businesses Barbie and Touvier.The French right applies, indeed, the rule of the principle of the imprescribility of the crimes against humanity, which means that supposed guilty can be translated into justice without no time being able to cancel the right to the action at law, even very a long time after the accused facts. The imprescribility is exceptional in French right and does not concern, moreover, that the crimes against humanity. All the infringements, even criminal, of the criminal law are prescriptible. This is why the distinction with the war crimes is essential, because the war crimes are subjected to the normal regulation of the criminal law. Gravity out of the commun run of the crime against humanity allows also the implementation of derogatory processes compared to the French general criminal law. Thus, the Supreme court of appeal admitted that the arrest of Klaus Barbie was regular, in spite of the very particular conditions of its expulsion of Bolivia towards France (stop of October 6, 1983). Moreover, the defendant of crime against humanity cannot defend himself to have acted as conformity with the law in force in the country where the facts were made and at the time when they were made, because that does not allow the exemption of the penal responsibility for the infringements made by the defendant, who he was a simple executant or a leader. These exemptions are justified by the world recognition of a kind of natural justice penal, commune with very whole humanity, which authorizes a more severe repression.

International penal court [ CPI ]

    International penal court [ CPI ]

1

PRESENTATION

International penal court [ CPI ], permanent court international, independent of the United Nations, charged to judge the authors of the international crimes: génocides, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and, in the long term, crimes of aggression.

The international penal Court (CPI) is based in the Hague (Netherlands). Entry into force the 1 ^er July 2002, it gathers, at this date, 139 countries signatories and 76 ratifications.

2

CREATION OF THE CPI

2. 1

A project of long date

Since 1946, in an international context marked by the traumatism caused by Shoah, one of the first initiatives of United Nations (UNO) is to create the Commission of the international law (TDCI), charged to work out and codify the international law, but also to prepare the statute of an international criminal court. In its turn, Convention for the prevention and the repression of the crime of génocide, adopted on December 9, 1948, considers the creation of an international criminal court. But the project once again remains outstanding, regarded as a Utopia of humanistic. In the years 1990, work of the TDCI leads nevertheless to the establishment of two international penal Tribunals: for ex-Yugoslavia (TPIY) in 1993, and for Rwanda (TPIR) in 1994. With a competence reduced to the territories for which they were created, these courts thus represent a considerable limitation of the preliminary draft.

The will to create a permanent international court becomes again of topicality in 1995 pennies the impulse of the Coalition for the international penal Court, an association joining together more than 100 nongovernmental organizations (ONG) with vocation of defense of the humans right (of which Amnesty International and the international Federation of the Leagues of the humans right).

2. 2

Utopia with the concretization: the statute of Rome

Three years later, July 17, 1998, within the framework of a conference at this meeting in Rome under the aegis of the United Nations, 120 of the States present adopt the treaty of creation of the international penal Court: it is the statute of Rome "Affirming that the most serious crimes which touch the whole of the international community could not remain unpunished and that them repression must be actually ensured by measures taken within the national framework and by the reinforcement of the international co-operation, determined to put a term at the impunity of the authors of these crimes and to thus contribute to the prevention of new crimes (…)" (preamble), the countries signatories agree on an entry according to the international penal Court three months after the sixtieth ratification. To the 1 ^er July 2002, effective date of birth of the CPI, the statute of Rome was signed by 19 additional States, and was ratified by 76 nations.

3

COMPETENCES AND MISSIONS

The CPI aims to consider the "crimes most serious which touch the whole of the international community (…) [ It ] competence with regard to the following crimes has: a) The crime of génocide; b) Crimes against humanity; c) war crimes; d) The crime of aggression "It can judge any person (the CPI is not qualified to judge disagreements between States) being made guilty such crimes, civil or military, and this whatever its rank or its official function, the political decision maker or top graded with the simple executant. It can be seized by a State left (i.e. which signed the statute of Rome), the prosecutor or the Security Council of the United Nations.

The creation of the CPI thus devotes the concept of "universal criminal law", instrument of protection of the international law and order. In fact, beyond its mission of sanction of the international crimes, the CPI also posts a clear will of prevention  —according to words' of the Secretary General of the United Nations Kofi Annan: "We wish to see it dissuading the future war criminals, and making so that no government, no State, no junta and no army can nowhere attack the humans right with impunity".

Contrary to the two international penal Courts (TPI) respectively created for ex-Yugoslavia and Rwanda, the CPI does not have an action limited on a given and restricted territory, but can consider all the crimes committed on the territory of any country having ratified the statute of Rome. On the other hand, if the TPI have, as long as they remain in force (namely as long as the objectives which were assigned to them will not have been achieved), primacy on national justices, the CPI intervenes only in second recourse, if justices of the nations concerned cannot or do not want to continue the people committal for trial.

If it has vocation with the universality, the CPI is however confronted with limits registered in its same statutes. Thus, except for a sasine by the Security Council for UNO, the CPI is qualified only if the person committal for trial is amenable to one of the Member States or if the crimes occurred on the territory of a Member State. In addition, it cannot have any retroactive action: only complaints for crimes committed as from the date of its entry into force can thus be admissible, the 1 ^er July 2002, and for the countries having ratified the treaty on this date. For the countries ratifying the treaty after the 1 ^er July 2002, only the crimes committed starting from the effective date of ratification can be taken into account. Lastly, several countries refuse to ratify the statute of Rome, in particular the United States, which refuses to see their nationals exposed to international continuations, whereas they have many troops abroad.

4

COMPOSITION AND OPERATION

The CPI is made up of four bodies: the presidency, the rooms, the office of the prosecutor and graft it. The presidency, which is in charge of the good administration of the Court, is consisted the president, the first and the second vice-presidents; those are elected in the majority absolute of the 18 judges of the Court for one three years renewable duration.

The judges of the Court (elected by the States left for a nine years renewable mandate) are divided into sections (rooms): the preliminary room studies the validity of the requests, authorizes or not the opening of an investigation and prepares the procedure; the room of first authority considers the businesses validated by the preliminary room; the room of call considers the businesses carried in call by the prosecutor or the person accused against a judgement given by the preliminary room or of first authority.

The office of the prosecutor is composed of the prosecutor (and possibly of assistant prosecutors), who is elected for nine years by the Parliament of the States left. Its role is to inquire in all independence into the crimes coming under the responsibility of the Court. Lastly, it clerk's office is in charge of the nonlegal aspects (like the information management concerning a business or the communication between the Court and the States).

In 2005, the president of the CPI is the Canadian Philippe Kirsch (elected in March 2003) and the prosecutor is the Argentinian one Shine Moreno-Ocampo (elected in April 2003). The CPI informs three businesses concerning of the crimes committed in democratic Republic of Congo (RDC), in Uganda and in the area of Darfour (Sudan)  —in this last case, sasine comes from the Security Council of UNO.